2.2.1 Expressing Opinions
During discussion, ideas build one upon the next, generating new ideas, until the best decision emerges. There is creative interplay of ideas. For some topics involving innovation, there can be a rhythm of search and selection, exploration and synthesis, cycles of divergent thinking followed by convergence.
To accurately, clearly, and briefly state one’s opinion is necessary. Dysfunction can characterize a consultative decision making group when the “discussion” gets bogged down by long-winded, meandering explanations by an individual, which effectively stops any interplay of ideas because only one idea is being heard. Being able to succinctly put forth an idea can be learned if there is the will to do it. More complicated ideas may require outlines or graphics of the idea to be prepared ahead of time, or involve a separate seminar where the purpose is a deeper understanding of the subject which can then be followed by a consultative team session.
The members of the group need the necessary skills to support the balance of process (to express themselves freely as individuals and to deliver quality output and meet time constraints as a group).
2.2.2 Listening
Effective listening is something that everybody needs to learn to do, some more than others. In consultative decision making it is essential that, before expressing one’s own view, a participant must carefully consider the views already advanced by others. Dysfunction will take place if group members simply wait for the other persons to stop talking so that they can give their input, effectively not listening to or ignoring others.
There are a number of listening skills that contribute to the team discussions, such as:
Asking Effective Questions; Expressing Empathy; Rephrasing; Acknowledging; and Using Silence.
A typical ground rule in consultation is that you don’t interrupt another person while they are speaking. However a common exception to this rule is often agreed, when it is necessary to ask the speaker to clarify what they said.
2.2.3 Detachment
“The members… must learn to express their views frankly, calmly, without passion or rancor… They must also learn to listen to the opinions of their fellow members without taking offense or belittling the views of another.” 1 Such principles sound simple, but when not sincerely followed by the individuals of a group, dysfunction will occur. A common mistake in consultative groups is for one member of the group to criticize an earlier idea, before proceeding to present his or her idea. This is often done with the sincere belief that the other person’s idea is wrong, or incomplete.
The difficulty of this theme should not be underestimated. It was a pagan slogan that those who seek the truth must both refute without prejudice and accept criticism without resentment. Supposively this idea had to be rediscovered by Montaigne (1533-1592). Philosophical calm had to be created from within rather than secured by external institutions 2.
Part of the education received in graduate schools is to be intellectually detached from ideas, to search out the truth. In academic communities nearly everyone feels strongly about their viewpoint and it is understood that one’s opinions are put forth in relation to the accumulated knowledge of a particular discipline. Academic works always include a review of the literature and current thinking, and differences among academics are normal. To present an idea to the academic community with rancor, or to show offence if someone has presented a different contribution, is not accepted behavior in this culture. The culture demands frankness and the collectivity of knowledge.
Not everyone has the opportunity to experience this training in academic circumstances but in a supporting environment (see culture below) these skills can be learned in a group.
2.2.4 Conflict Resolution
Consultative decision making takes an interactionist view of conflict, or that conflict is not only a positive force in a group but that it is often necessary for a group to perform effectively. It is understood that this implies a conflict of ideas, and not of personalities or egos. In consultative decision making, the participants need to forget personalities and to overcome the desire to take sides and fight about the issue at hand.
The desirability of conflict is due to the need for individuals to express themselves independently in consultation. This invariably produces differences in ideas and potential outcomes. If there is no conflict at all, this could be a sign that there exists a dominant personality, or that participants don’t give their opinion openly. The relationship depicted in Figure 4 suggests that there is a right amount of conflict that is needed for high group performance.
Figure 4. Relationship between performance and conflict in a group or team.
If conflict is a positive force, participants need to know how to deal with conflict and find the optimal, group based consensus. Reasons for conflicts need to be identified. They can be numerous, including:
• Goal Incompatibility
• Lack of Task Focus
• Role Uncertainty
• Resource Allocation
• Budgets and Costs
• Schedules
How individuals react to conflict can either support the consultative process or diminish it. Figure 5 shows various responses based on the individual’s assertiveness and cooperativeness. Ideally, all individuals involved in consultative decision making would be assertive and cooperating, placing them in the “collaborating” category.
Figure 5. Reactions to conflict based on assertiveness and cooperativeness.
Conflict resolution is a process of working through opposing views in order to reach a common goal or mutual purpose. Given this fact, it is noted that many conflict resolution groups involve methodologies that include consensus decision making. The Consensus Building Handbook was the winner of the 1999 CPR Institute for Dispute Resolution "BEST BOOK AWARD" for excellence in alternative dispute resolution and is a comprehensive reference guide that helps groups of all kinds decide when and how to use consensus building techniques.
1 Compilations, Lights of Guidance, Bahá’í Publishing Trust, India, p. 179
2 www.historyguide.org/intellect/lecture8a.html
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